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Cryptographic Services</a> &#187;</li> <li class="right"> <div class="inline-search" style="display: none" role="search"> <form class="inline-search" action="../search.html" method="get"> <input placeholder="Quick search" type="text" name="q" /> <input type="submit" value="Go" /> <input type="hidden" name="check_keywords" value="yes" /> <input type="hidden" name="area" value="default" /> </form> </div> <script type="text/javascript">$('.inline-search').show(0);</script> | </li> </ul> </div> <div class="document"> <div class="documentwrapper"> <div class="bodywrapper"> <div class="body" role="main"> <div class="section" id="module-secrets"> <span id="secrets-generate-secure-random-numbers-for-managing-secrets"></span><h1>15.3. <a class="reference internal" href="#module-secrets" title="secrets: Generate secure random numbers for managing secrets."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">secrets</span></code></a> — Generate secure random numbers for managing secrets<a class="headerlink" href="#module-secrets" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1> <div class="versionadded"> <p><span class="versionmodified">New in version 3.6.</span></p> </div> <p><strong>Source code:</strong> <a class="reference external" href="https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.6/Lib/secrets.py">Lib/secrets.py</a></p> <hr class="docutils" /> <p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-secrets" title="secrets: Generate secure random numbers for managing secrets."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">secrets</span></code></a> module is used for generating cryptographically strong random numbers suitable for managing data such as passwords, account authentication, security tokens, and related secrets.</p> <p>In particularly, <a class="reference internal" href="#module-secrets" title="secrets: Generate secure random numbers for managing secrets."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">secrets</span></code></a> should be used in preference to the default pseudo-random number generator in the <a class="reference internal" href="random.html#module-random" title="random: Generate pseudo-random numbers with various common distributions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">random</span></code></a> module, which is designed for modelling and simulation, not security or cryptography.</p> <div class="admonition seealso"> <p class="first admonition-title">See also</p> <p class="last"><span class="target" id="index-0"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0506"><strong>PEP 506</strong></a></p> </div> <div class="section" id="random-numbers"> <h2>15.3.1. Random numbers<a class="headerlink" href="#random-numbers" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2> <p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-secrets" title="secrets: Generate secure random numbers for managing secrets."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">secrets</span></code></a> module provides access to the most secure source of randomness that your operating system provides.</p> <dl class="class"> <dt id="secrets.SystemRandom"> <em class="property">class </em><code class="descclassname">secrets.</code><code class="descname">SystemRandom</code><a class="headerlink" href="#secrets.SystemRandom" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dd><p>A class for generating random numbers using the highest-quality sources provided by the operating system. See <a class="reference internal" href="random.html#random.SystemRandom" title="random.SystemRandom"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">random.SystemRandom</span></code></a> for additional details.</p> </dd></dl> <dl class="function"> <dt id="secrets.choice"> <code class="descclassname">secrets.</code><code class="descname">choice</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>sequence</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#secrets.choice" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dd><p>Return a randomly-chosen element from a non-empty sequence.</p> </dd></dl> <dl class="function"> <dt id="secrets.randbelow"> <code class="descclassname">secrets.</code><code class="descname">randbelow</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>n</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#secrets.randbelow" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dd><p>Return a random int in the range [0, <em>n</em>).</p> </dd></dl> <dl class="function"> <dt id="secrets.randbits"> <code class="descclassname">secrets.</code><code class="descname">randbits</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>k</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#secrets.randbits" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dd><p>Return an int with <em>k</em> random bits.</p> </dd></dl> </div> <div class="section" id="generating-tokens"> <h2>15.3.2. Generating tokens<a class="headerlink" href="#generating-tokens" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2> <p>The <a class="reference internal" href="#module-secrets" title="secrets: Generate secure random numbers for managing secrets."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">secrets</span></code></a> module provides functions for generating secure tokens, suitable for applications such as password resets, hard-to-guess URLs, and similar.</p> <dl class="function"> <dt id="secrets.token_bytes"> <code class="descclassname">secrets.</code><code class="descname">token_bytes</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>nbytes=None</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#secrets.token_bytes" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dd><p>Return a random byte string containing <em>nbytes</em> number of bytes. If <em>nbytes</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> or not supplied, a reasonable default is used.</p> <div class="highlight-pycon notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">token_bytes</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">16</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="go">b&#39;\xebr\x17D*t\xae\xd4\xe3S\xb6\xe2\xebP1\x8b&#39;</span> </pre></div> </div> </dd></dl> <dl class="function"> <dt id="secrets.token_hex"> <code class="descclassname">secrets.</code><code class="descname">token_hex</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>nbytes=None</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#secrets.token_hex" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dd><p>Return a random text string, in hexadecimal. The string has <em>nbytes</em> random bytes, each byte converted to two hex digits. If <em>nbytes</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> or not supplied, a reasonable default is used.</p> <div class="highlight-pycon notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">token_hex</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">16</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="go">&#39;f9bf78b9a18ce6d46a0cd2b0b86df9da&#39;</span> </pre></div> </div> </dd></dl> <dl class="function"> <dt id="secrets.token_urlsafe"> <code class="descclassname">secrets.</code><code class="descname">token_urlsafe</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><span class="optional">[</span><em>nbytes=None</em><span class="optional">]</span><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#secrets.token_urlsafe" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dd><p>Return a random URL-safe text string, containing <em>nbytes</em> random bytes. The text is Base64 encoded, so on average each byte results in approximately 1.3 characters. If <em>nbytes</em> is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code> or not supplied, a reasonable default is used.</p> <div class="highlight-pycon notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">&gt;&gt;&gt; </span><span class="n">token_urlsafe</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">16</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="go">&#39;Drmhze6EPcv0fN_81Bj-nA&#39;</span> </pre></div> </div> </dd></dl> <div class="section" id="how-many-bytes-should-tokens-use"> <h3>15.3.2.1. How many bytes should tokens use?<a class="headerlink" href="#how-many-bytes-should-tokens-use" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3> <p>To be secure against <a class="reference external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brute-force_attack">brute-force attacks</a>, tokens need to have sufficient randomness. Unfortunately, what is considered sufficient will necessarily increase as computers get more powerful and able to make more guesses in a shorter period. As of 2015, it is believed that 32 bytes (256 bits) of randomness is sufficient for the typical use-case expected for the <a class="reference internal" href="#module-secrets" title="secrets: Generate secure random numbers for managing secrets."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">secrets</span></code></a> module.</p> <p>For those who want to manage their own token length, you can explicitly specify how much randomness is used for tokens by giving an <a class="reference internal" href="functions.html#int" title="int"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">int</span></code></a> argument to the various <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">token_*</span></code> functions. That argument is taken as the number of bytes of randomness to use.</p> <p>Otherwise, if no argument is provided, or if the argument is <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">None</span></code>, the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">token_*</span></code> functions will use a reasonable default instead.</p> <div class="admonition note"> <p class="first admonition-title">Note</p> <p class="last">That default is subject to change at any time, including during maintenance releases.</p> </div> </div> </div> <div class="section" id="other-functions"> <h2>15.3.3. Other functions<a class="headerlink" href="#other-functions" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2> <dl class="function"> <dt id="secrets.compare_digest"> <code class="descclassname">secrets.</code><code class="descname">compare_digest</code><span class="sig-paren">(</span><em>a</em>, <em>b</em><span class="sig-paren">)</span><a class="headerlink" href="#secrets.compare_digest" title="Permalink to this definition">¶</a></dt> <dd><p>Return <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">True</span></code> if strings <em>a</em> and <em>b</em> are equal, otherwise <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">False</span></code>, in such a way as to reduce the risk of <a class="reference external" href="http://codahale.com/a-lesson-in-timing-attacks/">timing attacks</a>. See <a class="reference internal" href="hmac.html#hmac.compare_digest" title="hmac.compare_digest"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hmac.compare_digest()</span></code></a> for additional details.</p> </dd></dl> </div> <div class="section" id="recipes-and-best-practices"> <h2>15.3.4. Recipes and best practices<a class="headerlink" href="#recipes-and-best-practices" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2> <p>This section shows recipes and best practices for using <a class="reference internal" href="#module-secrets" title="secrets: Generate secure random numbers for managing secrets."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">secrets</span></code></a> to manage a basic level of security.</p> <p>Generate an eight-character alphanumeric password:</p> <div class="highlight-python notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">string</span> <span class="n">alphabet</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">string</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ascii_letters</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">string</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">digits</span> <span class="n">password</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">join</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">choice</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">alphabet</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">8</span><span class="p">))</span> </pre></div> </div> <div class="admonition note"> <p class="first admonition-title">Note</p> <p class="last">Applications should not <a class="reference external" href="http://cwe.mitre.org/data/definitions/257.html">store passwords in a recoverable format</a>, whether plain text or encrypted. They should be salted and hashed using a cryptographically-strong one-way (irreversible) hash function.</p> </div> <p>Generate a ten-character alphanumeric password with at least one lowercase character, at least one uppercase character, and at least three digits:</p> <div class="highlight-python notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">string</span> <span class="n">alphabet</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">string</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ascii_letters</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">string</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">digits</span> <span class="k">while</span> <span class="bp">True</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">password</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;&#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">join</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">choice</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">alphabet</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">10</span><span class="p">))</span> <span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">any</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">c</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">islower</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">c</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">password</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="ow">and</span> <span class="nb">any</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">c</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">isupper</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">c</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">password</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="ow">and</span> <span class="nb">sum</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">c</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">isdigit</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">c</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">password</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">&gt;=</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">):</span> <span class="k">break</span> </pre></div> </div> <p>Generate an <a class="reference external" href="http://xkcd.com/936/">XKCD-style passphrase</a>:</p> <div class="highlight-python notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="c1"># On standard Linux systems, use a convenient dictionary file.</span> <span class="c1"># Other platforms may need to provide their own word-list.</span> <span class="k">with</span> <span class="nb">open</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">&#39;/usr/share/dict/words&#39;</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="n">words</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="n">word</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">strip</span><span class="p">()</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">word</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="n">f</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="n">password</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39; &#39;</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">join</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">choice</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">words</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="k">for</span> <span class="n">i</span> <span class="ow">in</span> <span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">))</span> </pre></div> </div> <p>Generate a hard-to-guess temporary URL containing a security token suitable for password recovery applications:</p> <div class="highlight-python notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">url</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">&#39;https://mydomain.com/reset=&#39;</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">token_urlsafe</span><span class="p">()</span> </pre></div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation"> <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper"> <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table Of Contents</a></h3> <ul> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#">15.3. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">secrets</span></code> — Generate secure random numbers for managing secrets</a><ul> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#random-numbers">15.3.1. Random numbers</a></li> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#generating-tokens">15.3.2. Generating tokens</a><ul> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#how-many-bytes-should-tokens-use">15.3.2.1. How many bytes should tokens use?</a></li> </ul> </li> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#other-functions">15.3.3. Other functions</a></li> <li><a class="reference internal" href="#recipes-and-best-practices">15.3.4. Recipes and best practices</a></li> </ul> </li> </ul> <h4>Previous topic</h4> <p class="topless"><a href="hmac.html" title="previous chapter">15.2. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">hmac</span></code> — Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication</a></p> <h4>Next topic</h4> <p class="topless"><a href="allos.html" title="next chapter">16. 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